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While traditionally often regarded as little more than a bundle of motor and sensor axons together with a central column of stereotypical reflex circuits and pattern generators, there is evidence that the processing may be more complex Berg, Alaburda and Hounsgaard and that learning processes occur among spinal neurons Crown et al.
The networks responsible for standing and stepping are extremely flexible and unlikely to be hardwired Cai et al. This means that emulating just the brain part of the central nervous system will lose much body control that has been learned and resides in the non-scanned cord. On the other hand, it is possible that a generic spinal cord network would when attached to the emulated brain adapt requiring only scanning and emulating one spinal cord, as well as finding a way of attaching the spinal emulation to the brain emulation.
But even if this is true the time taken may correspond to rehabilitation timescales of subjective months, during which time the simulated body would be essentially paralysed. This might not be a major problem for personal identity in mind emulations since people suffering spinal injuries do not lose personal identity , but it would be a major limitation to their usefulness and might limit development of animal models for brain emulation.
It transports nutrients and buffers ions, but may also enable volume transmission of signaling molecules. Volume transmission of small molecules appears fairly well established. Nitrous oxide is hydrophobic and has low molecular weight and can hence diffuse relatively freely through membranes: it can reach up to 0. While mainly believed to be important for autoregulation of blood supply, it may also have a role in memory Ledo et al.
Larger molecules have their relative diffusion speed reduced by the limited geometry of the extracellular space, both in terms of its tortuosity and its anisotropy Nicholson Rapid and broad volume transmission such as from nitrous oxide can be simulated using a relatively coarse spatiotemporal grid size, while local transmission requires a grid with a spatial scale close to the neural scale if diffusion is severely hindered. Glia cells have traditionally been regarded as merely supporting actors to the neurons, but recent results suggest that they play a fairly active role in neural activity.
Beside the important role of myelinization for increasing neural transmission speed, at the very least they have strong effects on the local chemical environment of the extracellular space surrounding neurons and synapses. Glial cells exhibit calcium waves that spread along glial networks and affect nearby neurons Newman and Zahs They can both excite and inhibit nearby neurons through neurotransmittors Kozlov et al.
Conversely, the calcium concentration of glial cells is affected by the presence of specific neuromodulators Perea and Araque This suggests that the glial cells acts as an information processing network integrated with the neurons Fellin and Carmignoto If glial processing is significant brain emulation have to emulate the glia cells in the same way as neurons, increasing the computational demands by at least one order of magnitude.
However, the time constants for glial calcium dynamics is generally far slower than the dynamics of action potentials on the order of seconds or more suggesting that the time resolution does not have to be as fine.
Many most? This rapid dynamics likely plays a role in a variety of brain functions, such as temporal filtering Fortune and Rose , auditory processing Macleod, Horiuchi and Carr and motor control Nadim and Manor These changes occur on timescales longer than neural activity tens of milliseconds but shorter than long-term synaptic plasticity minutes to hours.
It also acts as a chemical environment that affects the brain through nutrients, hormones, salinity, dissolved gases and possibly immune signals. Most of these chemical signals occur on a subconscious level and only become apparent when they influence e. For a brain emulation some or all of this chemical environment has to be simulated. What is the resolution of chemical signals in the brain? How many species neurotransmitters?
Neurogenesis and stem cells may play a role. During neurite outgrowth and possibly afterwards cell adhesion proteins can affect gene expression and possible neuron function by affecting second messenger systems and calcium levels Crossin and Krushel Recent results show that neurogenesis persists in some brain regions in adulthood, and may have nontrivial functional consequences Saxe et al.
Simulating stem cell proliferation would require data structures representing different cells and their differentiation status, data on what triggers neurogenesis and models allowing for the gradual integration of the cells into the network. Such a simulation would involve modelling the geometry and mechanics of cells, possibly even tissue differentiation.
In a high resistance environment currents from action potentials are forced to flow through neighbouring neurons, changing their excitability. It has been claimed that they form a form of communication in the brain, in particular the hippocampus Krnjevic However, in most parts of the brain there is a large extracellular space and blocking myelin so even if ephaptic interactions play a role they do so only locally, e.
If ephaptic effects are important the emulation needs to take the locally induced electromagnetic fields into account.
This would plausibly involve dividing the extracellular space possibly also the intracellular space into finte elements where the field can be assumed to be constant, linear or otherwise easily approximable. While practically all neuroscientists subscribe to the dogma that neural activity is a phenomenon that occurs on a classical scale, there have been proposals mainly from physicists that quantum effects play an important role in the function of the brain Hameroff ; Penrose So far there is no evidence for quantum effects in the brain beyond quantum chemistry or that they play an important role for intelligence or consciousness Litt et al.
There is no lack of possible computational primitives in neurobiology nor any phenomena that appear unexplainable in terms of classical computations Koch and Hepp Hence quantum effects are unlikely to persist long enough to affect processing Tegmark This has however not deterred supporters of quantum consciousness, arguing that there may be mechanisms protecting quantum superpositions over significant periods Hagan, Hameroff and Tuszynski ; Rosa and Faber If these proposals hold true brain emulation will be significantly more complex but not impossible, given the right quantum computer.
In Hameroff mind emulation is considered based on quantum cellular automata based on the microtubule network the author suggest underlie consciousness. Assuming 7. The main problem with these calculations is that they produce such a profoundly large computational capacity on a subneural level that a macroscopic brain seems unnecessary especially since neurons are metabolically costly.
A surprisingly common doubt expressed about the possibility of even simulating simple neural systems is that they are analog rather than digital. The doubt is based on the assumption that there is an important qualitative difference between continuous and discrete variables. To some degree this is more a philosophical issue: if a continuous system is simulated by a discrete system, can it ever be an emulation? However, brains are made of imperfect structures in turn made of discrete atoms obeying quantum mechanical rules forcing them into discrete energy states, possibly also limited by a spacetime that is discrete on the Planck scale as well as noise, see below and so it is unlikely that the high precision required of hypercomputation can be physically realised Eliasmith A discrete approximation of an analog system can be made arbitrarily exact by refining the resolution.
This can relatively easily be made smaller than the natural noise sources such as unreliable synapses, thermal or electrical noise. The thermal noise is on the order of 4. Field potential recordings commonly have fluctuations on the order of millivolts due to neuron firing and a background noise on the order of tens of microvolts.
Again this suggests a limit to the necessary precision of simulation variables. The randomness version of the determinism criticism can be met by including sufficient noise in the simulation. Hidden variables or indeterministic free will appear to have the same status as quantum consciousness: while not ruled out by current observations there is no evidence that they occur or are necessary to explain observed phenomena. I don't understand why an environment simulator is a good idea, in general, or why it should be included in this WBE roadmap.
It seems to me that if you built a WBE contained within a simulated environment you run the risk of creating something completely vacuous. The WBE needs to interact with the real world to demonstrate that it is working. How else would you know whether the WBE had consciousness?
In the computer requirements part, environment simulation is described for photorealistic visual reproduction. This solution connects the WBE to the real world and doesn't require the additional computational bandwidth for photorealistic scene simulation.
If WBEs became possible, then maybe it would be fun to make a virtual environment for them and give them virtual bodies, but is this really a requirement for achieving WBE? Rather than groups certain attributes into a category called "exotica", which suggests that the level of complexity necessary for WBE is understood but that some fruitcakes like to include fanciful extra components for their own amusement, I suggest the levels of complexity be given in a straight-forward way to indicate that the correct level of detail for WBE is truly unknown.
With such a description in place, we might be able to have a discussion about exactly what level is required for WBE, but at the least we can discuss the computational complexity of each level. Is it convenient to talk at the moment? A pension scheme xnxx "Our burger is made from muscle cells taken from a cow. We haven't altered them in any way," Post said in a statement on Friday. Can I call you back? Until August wallpaper squeegee Allbritton snatched up Capital for an undisclosed sum, and in the weeks since, the site has gone on a bit of a hiring spree.
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